Closing The Gap In Educational Attainment

Closing The Gap In Educational Attainment Closing the gap in educational attainment between social groups has been widely acknowledged as a pressing concern of national importance Introduction Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world. Nelson Mandela grew up in a country divided by apartheid. A black man in a country where a white minority ruled, he had a vision for South Africa; to be one nation regardless of race. In 1994 he became the first black president of South Africa testament, indeed, that barriers, of any kind, should not be reason for or an apology for lack of attainment or achievement of any kind and, that barriers can be overcome. It is widely agreed that there are numerous barriers to educational achievement and social inclusion, among them Special Educational Needs (SEN)  [1]  and disability, Ethnicity and English as an Additional Language, and gender to name but a few. The aim of this essay however, is to look at just one of the barriers faced in this country, poverty, and to look at how pupils within this social group are affected and how poverty affects their educational achievement, further, the essay will look briefly at the evolution of inclusive education and what is currently being addressed by this and subsequent governments in order that pupils, regardless of circumstance can have equality in education. Body of essay In order to link poverty with educational achievement and attainment gaps, a background to poverty and social inclusion within education will be outlined followed by the first part of the analysis which will look at the historical overview of inclusive education, current policy and guidance and its impact on minority groups; the second part of the analysis will examine the effects of poverty and how, in particular, pupils entitled to FSMs  [2]  impact on the gap in educational attainment compared against children not entitled to FSMs. The final level of the analysis will look at the importance of narrowing the gap and the introduction of the 21st Century School. What is poverty? At this point it is necessary to note that, through research, it became apparent that there is an unclear and infinite definition about what poverty is and how it should be measured. However, most of the research leads to an agreement that poverty is to be related to in terms of typical living standards within the UK and the following definition is widely accepted: Individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities, and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary, or are at least widely encouraged and approved, in the societies in which they belong. P Townsend, Poverty in the United Kingdom: a survey of household resources and standards of living, Penguin, 1979, p31 The most crucial point made above and which is the main cause of poverty is resources; to emphasise more clearly, the main cause of poverty is insufficient income/unemployment which, for adults with children directly impacts on them and their wellbeing. Although the UK has a system of benefits which should protect families with children from poverty, these too are deemed as too low. In relation to this, it accepted that whilst adults do not choose for themselves the road of poverty, for children of parents living in poverty there is no alternative and they are therefore not just children but could be described as victims of circumstance. Poverty is not just about going without it is about being deprived of equality in areas such as health, housing and respect and, in the case of children, education. In conjunction with the definition (above) the DCSF (2009) goes on to describe child poverty alone as Child poverty means growing up in a household with low income. Research has shown that these children will face a greater risk of having poor health, being exposed to crime and failing to reach their full potential. It means they miss out on school trips, do not have adequate winter clothing and arent able to enjoy leisure activities with their peers. As a result, their education suffers making it difficult to get the qualifications they need to move on to sustainable, well-paid jobs. This limits their potential to earn the money needed to support their own families in later life, and so a cycle of poverty is created. www.dcsf.gov.uk/everychildmatters/strategy/parents/childpoverty/childpoverty/ What is Social inclusion? As with poverty, in order to link social inclusion with educational achievement and attainment gaps, a background and understanding of the issues pertaining to social inclusion need to be outlined. The term social exclusion is a term generally used to describe what can happen to people who are subject to the most severe problems, and are therefore no longer socially included. As noted above, children have no choice of background; they are born into it and therefore find themselves in poverty as a result of their birth circumstance. For a child not to be socially included brings consequences above and beyond economic poverty alone. It is generally considered that to be socially excluded as a young and impressionable child can have far reaching effects detrimental to both education and health therefore, to surmise, to be socially excluded is to face exclusion not just economically but socially and academically too. http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/social_exclusion_task_force/context.aspx Historical development of inclusive policy guidance Bearing in mind the previous points, it is necessary now focus on how this and previous governments have attempted to overcome some of these issues through inclusive education. It should also be noted that whilst this essay is focussing, in the main, on the impact of poverty on educational achievement, the roots of inclusive education lay predominantly with another minority group, children with learning difficulties/special educational needs (SEN). However, as acknowledged above; through circumstance, pupils from families who are deemed as in poverty have now been identified as a group who are under achieving academically and, therefore, as with pupils with SEN are a recognised minority group for which an inclusive education should benefit. Inclusion is not a new idea and in fact has its roots at the turn of the last century where educationalists, in particular child welfare pioneer Elizabeth Burgwin, saw neither the purpose nor virtue in, what was then segregated education and that adaptations could be made to ordinary schools in order to educate all children, whatever their ability or circumstance, together, however, there was another opinion that children could be categorised according to their ability and taught in special schools. These were children who, in the words of the School Board for London (1904) were children who could not be taught in ordinary schools. (Thomas, Walker and Webb, 1998) It became accepted that segregated education/special schools was the safe and sensible way forward to meet the needs of children with SEN; further, this format of schooling safeguarded the education of mainstream pupils in ordinary schools, indeed the 1944 Education Act scripted an extremely segregative post war education system. It was not until the mid-1960s when evidence showed lack of success in the system that opinions began to change and education looked toward integration and inclusion (Thomas et al., 1998). Given then that the purpose of inclusion within education is that pupils with SEN are integrated into mainstream education it is important here to note the difference between integration and inclusion. The term Integration was introduced in 1978 in the Warnock Report and referred to the idea of integrating children with SEN into a common educational framework. The idea has since progressed to include all children, not just those with an identified SEN, but children from all minority groups regardless of gender, ethnicity or circumstance [poverty] so that a fully inclusive education should be fully inclusive of all children and is seen to embrace diversity. (Warnock Report special educational needs 1978 chapter 7) (House of Commons: Select Committee on Education and Skills Third Report 2006) Clarification of inclusion policy: Defining inclusion p58). Inclusive education Promoting excellence in teaching and tackling disadvantage demands we personalise teaching and learning and back strong, innovative leadership in schools Ed Balls, Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families July 2007 present  [3]   ECM Speech to the National Childrens Bureau, 23rd July, 2007 The principle and practices of inclusive education therefore suggests that all pupils in a school, regardless of their strengths or weaknesses in any area, become part of the school community; that they are included in the feeling of belonging among other pupils, teachers, and support staff further, schools have a legal responsibility to educate all regardless of gender, ethnicity or circumstance in mainstream schools. Breaking the link (DSCF, 2009) identified that a FSM pupil is also more likely to have been identified with special educational needs (SEN) and will be more likely to have a CoP  [4]  statement or categorised as School Action or SA+, it is possible that this group will also be of a group of BEM or BESD  [5]  which have also been identified as an under performing social group. It is generally considered that there is a relationship between these factors and interventions such as personalised learning, as identified within the QCA framework for inclusion, is vital to adhere to in order for progress. For these identified groups, inclusion is not necessarily just understanding that every pupil will not be working on the same learning objectives as every other pupil within that group but that the pedagogy will be about recognising where differentiation would be appropriate in order to support and accommodate the different learning needs and styles of the social/learning group and that a detailed approach to monitoring their improvement is in place in order that targets may be stretched and met. Personalised learning (differentiation) therefore, will be key to lifting achievement and therefore should be a fundamental component to narrowing the gap and working towards a culture where a childs chances of success are not limited by their socio-economic background, gender, ethnicity or any disability or circumstance. Working within the inclusive framework however should not be viewed as a barrier for either pupil or staff; inclusion needs to be viewed as a continuing process of breaking down barriers and narrowing the gap to educational attainment for all children and young people. There are a number of laws addressing discrimination in education and therefore support inclusive education in the UK. Arguably, the most important piece of legislation passed in recent years is the Every Child Matters (ECM) policy which, launched in 2003, was published alongside the formal response to the report into the death of Victoria Climbià ©Ã‚  [6]  and gave rise to the 2004 Childrens act. ECM covers children and young adults up to the age of 19 (or 24 for those with disabilities) and is the Governments aim is for every child, whatever their background or circumstance, to have the support needed to: Be healthy Stay safe Enjoy and achieve Make a positive contribution Achieve economic well-being The ECM policy focussed on Inclusive Education Equality of Opportunity and placed high on the agenda 3 main areas: Human Rights Children have a right to learn and play together, they should not be discriminated against and inclusion is concerned with improving schools for both pupils and staff alike Equal Opportunities in Education Children do better in inclusive settings (academically and socially), they should not need to be separated in order to achieve equal academic status and inclusive education is a more effective use of resources Social Opportunities inclusive education is on part of inclusion in society, children need to be involved with all their peers. Assuming then that ECM and the 2004 Childrens act are supporting and sanctioning inclusion, it is interesting to note that there is evidence to suggest, through the attainment gap, that social minority groups, despite progress and the inclusion and integration advocated in the Warnock Report, are still under achieving and, that the concept of inclusive education is still discussed as though it applies only to children with an identified SEN and is not taking account of all social minority groups, but as identified in the Index for Inclusion below, it does, in fact, have a much wider scope, inclusion in education involves: (Booth and Ainscow 2000) Valuing all students and staff equally. Increasing the participation of students in, and reducing their exclusion from, the cultures, curricula and communities of local schools. Restructuring the cultures, policies and practices in schools so that they respond to the diversity of students in the locality. Reducing barriers to learning and participation for all students, not only those with impairments or those who are categorised as having special educational needs. Learning from attempts to overcome barriers to the access and participation of particular students to make changes for the benefit of students more widely. Viewing the difference between students as resources to support learning, rather than as problems to be overcome. Acknowledging the right of students to an education in their locality. Improving schools for staff as well as for students. Emphasising the role of schools in building community and developing values, as well as in increasing achievement. Fostering mutually sustaining relationships between schools and communities. Poverty and the effects on education It is the aim of this and subsequent governments to raise achievement for all pupils and to break the link between disadvantage [poverty] and low educational attainment. In 1999, the [then] government pledged to halve child poverty by 2010 and eradicate it by 2020, in response to this, in 2008 the government published a paper: Ending Child Poverty Making it Happen 2008 underlining their commitment to ensure not just that each successive generation is able to gain better jobs, but that everyone has the chance to achieve their potential, no matter what their background, further the paper announced that a child poverty Bill will be introduced in 2009. The Child Poverty Act 2010  [7]  ensures that sustained action must be taken to tackle child poverty by this, and future, governments, by devolved administrations, and by local government and their partners. The act sets targets relating to the eradication of child poverty, and to make other provision about child poverty. The Bill provides a statutory basis to the commitment made in 1999 and to create a framework in which to monitor progress at a national and local level. Relevant to poverty and education however, is section 26 of the act which makes an amendment to the of the Education Act 1996 and gives the Secretary of State an order-making power to extend eligibility for free school meals (FSMs) if the child meets prescribed conditions and the childs parent is in receipt of a prescribed benefit or allowance. (Child Poverty Act, 2010) Research carried out by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in 2007 reinforced that the links between poverty and education were clear but complicated and that to break the established relationship between poverty and poor educational outcomes required a change to the underlying structures (Raffo, Dyson, Gunter, Hall, Jones, Kalambouka JRF A Review of research on the links between education and Poverty, September 2007). Since then and with the advent of the Child Poverty Act and the End Child Poverty Campaign, inroads have been made and some 500,000 children have been lifted out of poverty  [8]  however, there are still currently 4 million children in the UK living in poverty, as defined above, which equates to an overwhelming 30% of children all within the UK, further, the UK has one of the worst rates of child poverty in the industrialised world. It could be argued therefore that poverty has the ability to obscure the potential and opportunity of a child and therefore limit the life chances of the child. Evidence suggests that poverty has the capability of shaping a childs development; before reaching the age of 2; a child from a poorer family is more likely to be showing lower levels of attainment than that of a child from a better off family and that children growing up in poverty are more likely to leave school at 16 with fewer qualifications (End Child Poverty; 2010). In the foreword to Removing Barriers to Achievement (DfES, 2004) a set of specific educational goals were expressed. Primarily, education is targeted as a means to integrate individuals into society and to teach them the skills necessary to participate contribute and achieve their potential. Therefore it can be assumed that the notion of inclusive education is a basic human right of every child regardless of circumstance. Given then that the opportunity for full time education is available for all and, that under international human rights law (and, in particular, Articles 28 and 29 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) which cover the right to education), the UK has an obligation to provide [inclusive] education for all children. (UN Convention on the Rights of the Child: 1989) If it is the case then, that the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving this right progressively on the basis of equal opportunity (Article 28), it is interesting to note that on average poorer children score less well on a range of educational measures such as reading tests in early years and GCSE results in secondary education, highlighting the plight of poverty in education. With the statement made in the: Ending Child Poverty document [to ensure not just that each successive generation is able to gain better jobs, but that everyone has the chance to achieve their potential, no matter what their background] it must follow, therefore, that part of the answer lies in education as the path to a better job lies with qualifications. During the last 10 years schools, nationwide, have benefited from government investment and statistics show that the attainment gap is closing however, evidence shows that there is still a link between family income and achievement. Approximately 15% of all pupils are entitled to FSMs but as demonstrated [below], these pupils are less likely to get 5 good ACEM  [9]  compared to those pupils not in receipt of FSM. For that reason, poverty and deprivation remain an ongoing area of concern. (DCSF: Breaking the Link, 2009) The importance then of FSMs for eligible pupils should not be under estimated as a means to closing the gap in educational attainment as, to refer back to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), article 27 states that no child in the UK should go hungry. Abraham Maslow is known for establishing the theory of a hierarchy of needs, which places, in a pyramid, the order basic requirements need for motivation. At the bottom, are the physical requirements which, although basic, we will not function comfortably without. The basic human need is for food, water and sleep. The middle of the pyramid deals with the emotion and at the very top is self fulfilment. Using this theory illustrates and reinforces the importance of FSMs for pupils eligible as without their basic need met pupils will not function to the best of their ability as demonstrated below. Assuming then that, a child is fed, research has shown that there is a significant and immediate effect of diet on behaviour, concentration and cognitive ability. Areas directly relating to educational attainment affected by nutrition have been identified as: Developmental disorders e.g. dyslexia and dyspraxia, Memory Concentration Intelligence Attention span Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder Aggression Achievement (Sorhaindo, A. Feinstein, L. 2006 What is the relationship between child nutrition and school outcomes? Wider Benefits of Learning Research Report No 18. Centre for Research of Wider Benefits of Learning) p 7, 11. If it is the case then that nutrition has a clear impact on the performance of a pupil, it must therefore be of prime importance to ensure that all pupils entitled to FSM are in receipt of them. In addition to the above, nutrition is also believed to impact upon behaviour, which has the potential also to affect school performance and interaction with peers, and compromise self-esteem (Sorhaindo et.al., 2006) However, research carried out for the DCSF by the Key Stage 2 4: National Indicator Set has shown that where pupils are in receipt of FSM academic attainment is lower at every key stage (as the focus group identified is secondary pupils, relevant statistics only are identified). By the sheer fact that a pupil is entitled to FSM indicates that they are from a family whose parents or carers are in receipt of benefit and are therefore are on low income and are entitled to apply to their local authority to claim FSMs. The use of the Income Deprivation Affecting Children Index (IDACI) is used in order to determine FSM eligibility. This however, this is by no means a perfect system, as it misses out children from families who do not apply for all the benefit to which they are entitled; in so doing pushes the family further into economic chaos as lunches that need not necessarily be paid for now become, unnecessarily, part of the family budget. (DCSF: Deprivation and Education 2009) An attainment gap (measured by pupils entitled to FSM) is measured at each key stage; it begins at key stage 1 and increases at each key stage through education. By the end of key stage 4, research has shown that there was a 29 percentage point gap between FSM and non FSM pupils in English and a 28 percentage point gap in maths. This equates to a non FSM pupil having over three times the odds of achieving an A*-C grade in these subjects compared to an FSM pupil. In 2007 Only 21% of FSM pupils achieved 5 ACEM  [10]  , compared to 49% of non FSM pupils. This figure had narrowed slightly from the statistics available for 2003, whereby a non FSM pupil had 3.8 times the odds of achieving 5+ACEM, but this ratio has fallen over time to just 3.1 in 2007. (DCSF: Deprivation and Education 2009). With a link in educational attainment having been identified and linked to amongst others, poverty and FSMs it is necessary to look at how this gap can be narrowed; for as long as poverty exists in childhood there will be an increase in the risk of adult poverty. Intergenerational cycles of poverty are not unbreakable or inevitable, but changes need to be implemented or there will be a risk that, in future years, the gap in attainment will impact on society, as there will be children leaving education with fewer skills required by employers when entering into the workforce, which will ultimately hinder economic growth. There is evidence to suggest that poverty need not be the cause to achievement or attainment. Research carried out by Jason Strelitz, policy advisor on UK child poverty for Save the Children, showed that with successful financial and policy intervention by national government poverty as a key barrier to educational attainment can be eliminated (Jason Strelitz, The Guardian Newspaper, Thursday 21 August 2008). It has been shown and is acknowledged that FSMs are a clear indicators of performance however, in London in 2007, the average attainment gap of children on FSM and non FSMs was 27 percentage points, the gap in performance between children on FSM in the best authority and the worst was wider still; 37 percentage points suggesting that it is not FSM in isolation alone that is seen as a barrier but geography and postcode. To illustrate; two contrasting London boroughs: Kensington and Chelsea, with few children on FSM, besides Tower Hamlets, who had the highest proportion of children on FSM anywhere in the country. In 1998 Tower Hamlets ranked as one of lowest-performing authorities in the country for educational attainment; 10 years later their results were above average across the board and, for the poorest children among the very best. It appeared the answer for Tower Hamlets was investment. During the 10 year period identified, investment and educational initiatives were focused on d isadvantaged areas and the results were outstanding. With the exception of one, all of the 30 local authorities that were identified saw improvement in their GCSE attainment since 1998. All, bar one, had above average per-pupil funding. (Strelitz, 2008). This clearly demonstrates how investment in education can work to narrow the gap in attainment and that poverty, is not necessarily a barrier to education. However, it should be remembered that the investment has been made in the educational system/framework not the individual and that the children themselves, due to family circumstance, are still actually in poverty although the opportunity of a good/better education has been afforded them and which will be the key to their future and the opportunity for them to move on into higher education or employment giving them the prospect of breaking intergenerational cycles of poverty. It is clear then from the above that problems within the education system have been identified and are being addressed, through legislation drive and forward thinking as financial investment alone will not solve the problem, however, it does indicate that the problem can be solved. Working on the guidelines for change recommended in ECM the government has produced a series of papers aimed at outlining the way forward to narrow the gap for specific groups. June 2009 saw the publication of the current governments white paper: Building a 21st Century School System along with Breaking the Link. Building a 21st Century School System proposes the way forward for education. It documents how this and future governments will build on the existing school system to create a new system that will provide an education that is able to act in response to the challenges of society. Further it looks at and endorses a totally inclusive educational system aiming to break the link between deprivation, disadvantage, disability and low educational attainment and so impacts upon intergenerational poverty as discussed above and where every child, regardless of gender, ethnicity or circumstance [poverty] will have the opportunity to develop and gain the skills necessary to succeed in the ever changing global climate. (DCSF: 21st Century School System) One element of the 21st Century School is Extended services within schools. This has now been implemented in 72% of schools nationwide and it is intended that by the end of 2010 all schools will offer extended school services. The aim being, to have integrated health and social care on site as well as child care and after school facilities; thereby ensuring that problems which may potentially stand in the way of pupils learning are more easily and readily dealt with. However, data to date shows that whilst awareness of and satisfaction with services among parents is relatively high, there remains a participation gap between FSM eligible pupils and those not eligible, with non FSM showing typically a 10% higher participation rate. The issue therefore is to further encourage the disadvantaged groups and, in particular those eligible for FSM, to participate and make use of the offer. The participation gap indicates that children from poorer backgrounds are less likely than their peers t o have used to such facilities and are therefore less likely to state that the service meets their needs on the other hand the data shows clearly that progress is being been made in enabling disadvantaged children to participate in quality after school activities, but that more needs to be done to maximise the benefits of these activities to bring this groups engagement with learning. (DSCF: Breaking the Link, 2009) Conclusion It is not poverty alone that is the barrier to educational achievement. Poverty is circumstance. This and subsequent governments can, and should invest in education in order to give our children the opportunity they need to break away from intergenerational poverty and to close the gap in educational achievement and social inclusion. While children are denied their basic human right of an education equal for all, no matter their current circumstance, they will remain in poverty. Improving life chances through education, for all, is not an unrealistic aspiration but does demand the commitment of policymakers, both national and local, schools, partner agencies and parents to work together, to be focused on delivering change for all. As Nelson Mandela broke through his barrier and proved that race need not hold back achievement, this country too can break down barriers; children from all backgrounds can achieve poverty does not and should not be a barrier to attainment.

Researched Guidelines and Types of Interviews Essay

Interview An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or statements from the interviewee. Although interviews are a standard part of journalism and media reporting, the focus of this piece is on how interviews can be used as a tool for psychological research. Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. Usually open-ended questions are asked during interviews. Before you start to design your interview questions and process, clearly articulate to yourself what problem or need is to be addressed using the information to be gathered by the interviews. This helps you keep clear focus on the intent of each question. Preparation for Interview 1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable at their own places of work or homes. 2. Explain the purpose of the interview. 3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here. Rarely can you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in certain circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their answers will be analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written permission to do so. 4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are conducting and its nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they’re to do so as they have them or wait until the end of the interview. 5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes. 6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to. 7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview. 8. Don’t count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record the interview or bring along someone to take notes. Sequence of Questions 1. Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible. 2. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions), first ask about some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily engage in the interview before warming up to more personal matters. 3. Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists of fact-based questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged. 4. Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It’s usually easier for them to talk about the present and then work into the past or future. 5. The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview. Wording of Questions 1. Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own terms when answering questions. 2. Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording. 3. Questions should be asked one at a time. 4. Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to the program or the respondents’ culture. 5. Be careful asking â€Å"why† questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect relationship that may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents to feel defensive, e.g., that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses to this and future questions. Conducting Interview 1. Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working. 2. Ask one question at a time. 3. Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don’t show strong emotional reactions to their responses. Patton suggests to act as if â€Å"you’ve heard it all before.† 4. Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, â€Å"uh huh†s, etc. 5. Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a note, it may appear as if you’re surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may influence answers to future questions. 6. Provide transition between major topics, e.g., â€Å"we’ve been talking about (some topic) and now I’d like to move on to (another topic).† 7. Don’t lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another topic, take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking questions to the interviewer. Immediately After Interview 1. Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview. 2. Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratchings, ensure pages are numbered, fill out any notes that don’t make senses, etc. 3. Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the interview occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were there any surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break? Types of Interviews 1. Informal, conversational interview – no predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview, the interviewer â€Å"goes with the flow†. 2. General interview guide approach – the guide approach is intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting information from the interviewee. 3. Standardized, open-ended interview – here, the same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to answer the question, i.e., they don’t select â€Å"yes† or â€Å"no† or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared. 4. Closed, fixed-response interview – where all interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing. Types of Topics in Questions Patton notes six kinds of questions. One can ask questions about: 1. Behaviors – about what a person has done or is doing 2. Opinions/values – about what a person thinks about a topic 3. Feelings – note that respondents sometimes respond with â€Å"I think †¦Ã¢â‚¬  so be careful to note that you’re looking for feelings 4. Knowledge – to get facts about a topic 5. Sensory – about what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled 6. Background/demographics – standard background questions, such as age, education, etc. Note that the above questions can be asked in terms of past, present or future. Kinds of Interview 1. Informational Interview The objective of this interview is to ask for advice and learn more about a particular career field, employer or particular job. Interviewing experts in their field is one more way to become more occupationally literate. The knowledge that you gain here will make you a sharper and more informed. You will also make a contact and further develop your network. 2. Screening or Telephone Interview A phone interview is a very cost effective way to screen candidates. These can last anywhere from 10 to 30 minutes. You should prepare for it like an open book exam. It is recommended that you have in front of you your resume, the job description, a list of references, some prepared answers to challenging questions and perhaps something about the company. The vast majority of communication is non-verbal. Because they can’t see your body language, it is critically important to have positive and polished answers with energetic tone and inflection. Be sure to ask what the next step is. 3. Individual Interview This is the most common type and often called a â€Å"personal interview.† It is typically a one-on-one exchange at the organizations offices. In order to best prepare you will want to know the length of the interview which can usually range from 30 to 90 minutes. If the interview is 30 minutes you have to be concise and have a high impact with your answers. If it is 60 or 90 minutes you will want to go into much more depth and use specific examples to support your generalizations. 4. Small Group or Committee Interview This is where you will be meeting with several decision-makers at once. This can be an intimidating experience if you are not prepared. It’s an efficient way to interview candidates and allows for different interpretations or perceptions of the same answer. Be sure to make eye contact with everyone, no matter who asked the question. It’s important to establish rapport with each member of the interview team. Try to find out the names and job titles of the participants. 5. The Second or On-Site Interview After your first interview, you may be asked back again for a â€Å"second date.† They like you enough that you made the first round of cuts, but they would like to know more about you before making their final decision. Second Interviews can last either a half or full-day so it is best to check again and get an agenda. You may be meeting with three to five individuals. This may include a representative from Human Resources, the department head, the office staff and the department head’s supervisor. Be alert and enthusiastic at all times! The more you know about the structure of the process, the less anxious you are going to feel and the better you will perform. This is the last step before an offer is made. 6. Behavioral-Based Interview The theory behind Critical Behavioral Interviewing (CBI) is that past performance in a similar situation is the best predictor of future performance. CBI probes much deeper than traditional interviewing techniques. You should prepare by thinking of specific examples that demonstrate your competence in core behaviors such as teamwork, problem-solving, communication, creativity, flexibility and organizational skills. You will want to tell your story and structure it by stating your answers in terms of the situation, the task, what action you took, and what was the result or outcome. 7. Task Oriented or Testing Interview This is a problem-solving interview where you will be given some exercises to demonstrate your creative and analytical abilities. A company may ask you to take a short test to evaluate your technical knowledge and skills. Sometimes a presentation to a group is necessary to determine your communication skills. Try to relax as much as possible. 8. Stress Interview During this rare type, the interviewer tries to bait you, to see how you will respond. The objective is to find your weaknesses and test how you hold up to pressure. Such tactics as weird silences, constant interruptions and challenging interrogation with antagonistic questions are designed to push your boundaries. The question you have to ask yourself is: Do I want to work for a company that treats me this way even before the offer is made? Rethink the corporate culture. Different Types of Interviews One-to-one Interview This is the most common type of Interview. In the One-to-one interview the candidate for employment meets directly with the interviewer. Phone Interview Phone Interviews are becoming increasingly popular among large corporations who are conducting a mass-hiring of employees. These interviews are conducted entirely over the phone and eliminate bias that may arise from a candidate’s appearance, mannerisms, or ethnicity. Often times, phone interview questions are structured and the question are behavioral in nature; to further eliminate bias. When preparing for a phone interview you should follow all of the steps listed above including getting dressed for the interview. Studies have shown that people who dress professionally for a phone interview will perform better than those dressed casually. Group interview In the group interview style you will be interviewing simultaneously with two or three other candidates all vying for the same position. In this interview style one or more applicants may be asked the same question or the pool of applicants can be broken into teams to determine a solution to a problem posed by the interviewer. This style of interviewing is most common in the technology fields or any field where group cohesiveness is of extreme importance. The best way to prepare for a group interview is to follow the steps listed above. Panel Interview A panel interview involves three or more members of the hiring organization meeting simultaneously with the person being considered for the position. This interview style is most common in academia or when hiring a senior level corporate executive. The term â€Å"search committee† is commonly used to describe a Panel Interview. In preparing for a panel interview it is best to understand an organization from every point of view. For example, if you are going to be interviewed by an organization’s Customer Service Manager, Finance Manager, and Human Resources Manager; you should familiarize yourself with current information about the organizations customer service policies, finance policies, and HR policies. Mock Interview The Mock Interview allows prospective job candidates to practice their interviewing skills in a simulated interview environment. Mock interviews provide constructive feedback to the participants to enhance job prospects by improving interview skills. Career fair interview A conversation during a career fair can be considered a screening interview. It is generally, 2-10 minutes in length with a human resources representative or a technical manager in your field. If mutual interest is established, it is likely you will be invited for further interviews. Because your meeting is brief, you will need to make an immediate positive impression. Research the employer and be prepared to match your background and interests to their needs. Site interview The site interview takes place at the employer’s site. It is a selection interview, following a successful screening interview (phone, career fair, on-campus). This is very good news for you since you are now 50% closer to a job offer. There is however, still work to do! Clarify the details of the visit in advance (date, location, length of visit, travel arrangements, suggested attire, expenses.) You may be scheduled for a half or full day of interviews, which may include a meal, a tour of the facility, and an overnight stay. To prepare for a site visit, conduct in-depth research on the employer and their location. Dress professionally and arrive 15-20 minutes early. Bring ten copies of your resume, reference list (graduating students), and unofficial transcript. If you have a portfolio or sample of your work, bring it with you. Behavioral Interview (Behavior based Interviewing or Structured Interviews) A structured interview is a type of interview that is utilized by many larger organizations. This interview is especially popular when there is more than one of the same position available within the organization. In a structured interview every applicant for the position is asked the same questions as every other applicant applying for the position. A structured interview may contain standard interview questions, behavioral interview questions, or a combination of the two.

English Literature Essay

Describe the contemporary education system as it appears at the beginning of ‘Hard Times’. How does Dickens show his distaste for this system up to the end of chapter four? Hard Times is like several other Dickens novels, it’s full of social criticism. Writing in the 1850’s, Charles Dickens was focusing mainly on the Industrial Revolution underway. As the title suggests, this novel is all about harsh times. Dickens uses the principle of utilitarianism throughout the novel. Utilitarianism is a philosophy which argues that all human activity, including learning, should be useful in the practical sense. Dickens is a social critic and all his other novels criticise institutions in some way or another such as in ‘Nicholas Nickelby’. The title ‘Hard Times’ suggests they were living in some really harsh times, what with industrialism on the way. Dickens’ philosophy is shaped from the characters in the book. The two businessmen believe in this philosophy which indicates that when you teach you have to use facts and calculations. This philosophy turns out to be a selfish one, which only focuses on practical learning. Dickens is very aware and understands this society. He has produced three sections to their novel: – sowing, reaping and garnering. The sowing section is the laying down and scattering of the seeds, mainly the teaching and ideas. This means that you are planting them down for the future and allowing them to grow. The reaping section indicates the harvesting of the seeds and cutting them in order for them to grow quicker. In other words, dickens has taken an agricultural view to portray how the teaching methods are affecting the children. The final section, garnering, is the considering of the lessons that are learned. There is a famous saying ‘you reap what you sow’. This perfectly describes this situation with the system and Gradgrind. He reaps what he’s sown, which is his family being torn apart at the end of the novel. We learn that this system is a failing one. It is based mainly on utilitarianism and all they do is force facts onto the children. The aim of the system is to create children who are like models or robots. Mr Thomas Gradgrind is a businessman who has lived by and supports utilitarianism in teaching. He owns a school which his daughter Louisa and son Thomas attend. The school’s principles are also based on facts but as we realise up to the end of chapter four, this method isn’t working. Dickens gives the name Gradgrind to show us that he is gradually grinding away the children’s freedom. I shall now analyse how dickens shows his distaste for this education system The first chapter is called ‘The One Thing Needful’. Dickens implies that the one thing needful is facts. He is being sarcastic and in doing so, he’s also made the first letter of each word in capitals.

The Columbine High School Massacre - 890 Words

In later years, the Columbine High School Massacre reflected tales of adolescents captured by darkness where they took part in an evangelical youth movement (Pike 647). This movement caused an uproar in legislation involving church and state (Pike 647). The massacre also effected public school dress codes and behavior policies, and most importantly, shaped Americans’ reasoning about teens deviance and normality (Pike 647). September 2006, six years later, Dawson College in Montreal had an incident similar to the Columbine Massacre (Pike 647). One student was killed and nineteen others were injured (Pike 647). Reports say the shooter, Kimvee Gill, was involved in a role playing gamed titled â€Å"The Columbine Massacre† (Pike 647). This game was released on the sixth anniversary of the massacre and had many critics and families of loved ones lost in uproar (Pike 648). The creator of the game, Danny Ledone, mentions that the Columbine High School Massacre as much of a wak eup call to him as anyone else (Pike 648). Ledone says he was headed down the same road at one point in his life (Pike 648). During all the outrage, this is how Ledone defended himself and his game (Pike 648). A cultural critic by the name of Henry Giroux once said, â€Å"†¦ Youth as menace symbolizes both a collective fear and the changing face of America† (Pike 648). In the years following the Columbine High School Massacre, many school districts installed metal detectors, along with security cameras, and alsoShow MoreRelatedThe Columbine High School Massacre2062 Words   |  9 PagesAmerican life was changed forever as the news broke of what would come to be known as the Columbine High School Massacre. Immediately reporters and psychologists alike began to ask the question; why? 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